For code running using Node. js APIs, converting between baseencoded strings and binary data should be performed using Buffer. from str, 'base64' and buf.

toString 'base64'. Decodes a string into bytes using Latin-1 ISO , and encodes those bytes into a string using Base Returns the maximum number of bytes that will be returned when buf. inspect is called. This can be overridden by user modules. See util. inspect for more details on buf. inspect behavior. An alias for buffer. Resolves a 'blob:nodedata Re-encodes the given Buffer or Uint8Array instance from one character encoding to another.

Returns a new Buffer instance. Throws if the fromEnc or toEnc specify invalid character encodings or if conversion from fromEnc to toEnc is not permitted. Encodings supported by buffer. transcode are: 'ascii' , 'utf8' , 'utf16le' , 'ucs2' , 'latin1' , and 'binary'. The transcoding process will use substitution characters if a given byte sequence cannot be adequately represented in the target encoding. For instance:. in the transcoded Buffer. This was never a class in the sense that the constructor always returned a Buffer instance, rather than a SlowBuffer instance.

It reflects vTypedArray::kMaxLength under the hood. Represents the largest length that a string primitive can have, counted in UTF code units. In versions of Node. js prior to 6. Because the behavior of new Buffer is different depending on the type of the first argument, security and reliability issues can be inadvertently introduced into applications when argument validation or Buffer initialization is not performed.

For example, if an attacker can cause an application to receive a number where a string is expected, the application may call new Buffer instead of new Buffer "" , leading it to allocate a byte buffer instead of allocating a 3 byte buffer with content "".

This is commonly possible using JSON API calls. Since JSON distinguishes between numeric and string types, it allows injection of numbers where a naively written application that does not validate its input sufficiently might expect to always receive a string.

Before Node. Since Node. However, other attacks are still possible, such as causing very large buffers to be allocated by the server, leading to performance degradation or crashing on memory exhaustion. To make the creation of Buffer instances more reliable and less error-prone, the various forms of the new Buffer constructor have been deprecated and replaced by separate Buffer.

from , Buffer. alloc , and Buffer. allocUnsafe methods. Developers should migrate all existing uses of the new Buffer constructors to one of these new APIs.

Buffer instances returned by Buffer. allocUnsafe and Buffer. from array may be allocated off a shared internal memory pool if size is less than or equal to half Buffer. Instances returned by Buffer. allocUnsafeSlow never use the shared internal memory pool. js can be started using the --zero-fill-buffers command-line option to cause all newly-allocated Buffer instances to be zero-filled upon creation by default.

Without the option, buffers created with Buffer. allocUnsafeSlow , and new SlowBuffer size are not zero-filled. Use of this flag can have a measurable negative impact on performance. Use the --zero-fill-buffers option only when necessary to enforce that newly allocated Buffer instances cannot contain old data that is potentially sensitive. When calling Buffer. allocUnsafeSlow , the segment of allocated memory is uninitialized it is not zeroed-out.

While this design makes the allocation of memory quite fast, the allocated segment of memory might contain old data that is potentially sensitive. Using a Buffer created by Buffer. allocUnsafe without completely overwriting the memory can allow this old data to be leaked when the Buffer memory is read.

While there are clear performance advantages to using Buffer. allocUnsafe , extra care must be taken in order to avoid introducing security vulnerabilities into an application. Table of contents Buffer Buffers and character encodings Buffers and TypedArrays Buffers and iteration Class: Blob new buffer.

Blob [sources[, options]] blob. arrayBuffer blob. size blob. slice [start[, end[, type]]] blob. stream blob. text blob. type Blob objects and MessageChannel Class: Buffer Static method: Buffer.

alloc size[, fill[, encoding]] Static method: Buffer. allocUnsafe size Static method: Buffer. allocUnsafeSlow size Static method: Buffer. byteLength string[, encoding] Static method: Buffer. compare buf1, buf2 Static method: Buffer. concat list[, totalLength] Static method: Buffer. from array Static method: Buffer. from arrayBuffer[, byteOffset[, length]] Static method: Buffer. from buffer Static method: Buffer. from object[, offsetOrEncoding[, length]] Static method: Buffer.

from string[, encoding] Static method: Buffer. isBuffer obj Static method: Buffer. isEncoding encoding Class property: Buffer. poolSize buf[index] buf. buffer buf. byteOffset buf. compare target[, targetStart[, targetEnd[, sourceStart[, sourceEnd]]]] buf. copy target[, targetStart[, sourceStart[, sourceEnd]]] buf. entries buf. equals otherBuffer buf. fill value[, offset[, end]][, encoding] buf. includes value[, byteOffset][, encoding] buf. indexOf value[, byteOffset][, encoding] buf. keys buf.

lastIndexOf value[, byteOffset][, encoding] buf. length buf. parent buf. readBigInt64BE [offset] buf. readBigInt64LE [offset] buf. readBigUInt64BE [offset] buf. readBigUInt64LE [offset] buf.

readDoubleBE [offset] buf. readDoubleLE [offset] buf. readFloatBE [offset] buf. readFloatLE [offset] buf. readInt8 [offset] buf. readInt16BE [offset] buf. readInt16LE [offset] buf. readInt32BE [offset] buf.

readInt32LE [offset] buf. readIntBE offset, byteLength buf. readIntLE offset, byteLength buf. readUInt8 [offset] buf.

readUInt16BE [offset] buf. readUInt16LE [offset] buf. readUInt32BE [offset] buf. readUInt32LE [offset] buf. readUIntBE offset, byteLength buf. readUIntLE offset, byteLength buf. subarray [start[, end]] buf. slice [start[, end]] buf. swap16 buf. swap32 buf. swap64 buf. toJSON buf. toString [encoding[, start[, end]]] buf. values buf.

write string[, offset[, length]][, encoding] buf. writeBigInt64BE value[, offset] buf. writeBigInt64LE value[, offset] buf. writeBigUInt64BE value[, offset] buf. writeBigUInt64LE value[, offset] buf. writeDoubleBE value[, offset] buf. writeDoubleLE value[, offset] buf. writeFloatBE value[, offset] buf. writeFloatLE value[, offset] buf. writeInt8 value[, offset] buf. writeInt16BE value[, offset] buf. writeInt16LE value[, offset] buf. writeInt32BE value[, offset] buf.

writeInt32LE value[, offset] buf. writeIntBE value, offset, byteLength buf. writeIntLE value, offset, byteLength buf. writeUInt8 value[, offset] buf. writeUInt16BE value[, offset] buf. writeUInt16LE value[, offset] buf. writeUInt32BE value[, offset] buf. writeUInt32LE value[, offset] buf. writeUIntBE value, offset, byteLength buf.

writeUIntLE value, offset, byteLength new Buffer array new Buffer arrayBuffer[, byteOffset[, length]] new Buffer buffer new Buffer size new Buffer string[, encoding] Class: File new buffer. File sources, fileName[, options] file. name file. A binary option can be used in a number of ways, and across a huge array of commodities and markets.

This means finding the best dealer, best account, or best trading platform, really depends on the needs of the individual investor. For example, some brokers may focus on forex foreign exchange and trading the Japanese Yen, Euro or sterling. Others may be strong on commodities and only offer a handful of FX markets.

White label platform providers such as SpotOption, Tradologic or TechFinancials also dictate what products the host site can offer, so a proprietary broker with a bespoke design might be preferable. Payment methods merit some thought — if traders want to use Skrill, Paypal, Neteller or Wire transfer, they need to check the broker delivers that. Mobile trading apps delivered by brokers or binary agents can vary in quality too. Some specifically program for the features of specific models, like iPad or iPhone.

Others ensure cross platform compatibility, catering for android, blackberry and windows tablets and devices. Some traders may have tailored demands for any hand held app, others less so. Trade size limits may point some investors either to, or away from, certain trading accounts. Some brokers offer minimum trades of just £1, while others cater for investors willing to invest £, in a single trade.

So every investor needs to consider their own trading style before deciding to open an account. Our comparison table delivers a quick summary of the key points when comparing brokers. Our detailed reviews then allow potential new users to assess some of the finer points that might confirm their decision.

Here is a list of some of the vital comparison points for brokers;. Some points might be more important to certain traders than others. A speculator taking a position on the monetary policy of the Bank of England or ECB might be best served by one broker, while the person looking to bet on growth in the Apple, Facebook or Vodafone share price might want another. Most top brokers offer demo trading accounts.

These allow new clients to try the services on offer. They can see if the range of markets and investment scales suit them and only proceed to a funded account when they are happy that the right trading account has been found. Those brokers that do provide practise or virtual balances, have confidence in their trading platform.

They are prepared to let new traders see it, and try it out, risk free. The majority of these demonstration accounts will work on both the website, and also the mobile app. Both systems can be checked before making a deposit. This type of account allows the user to not just trial the broker, but also use the demo account to try a new trading strategy, or even back test a strategy based on past financial data.

All without risking any of your own cash or wealth. Our broker reviews are written after genuine trading on each platform, brand, or white label. They include all aspects of each provider — good or bad. The credibility of the reviews is important to us.

So they are checked and updated regularly and feedback we receive forms part of the overall rating. In order for binary trading to move into the financial mainstream, comparison services need to be open, honest and transparent — and that is what we try and deliver in our broker reviews. Binary brokers are regulated via a number of bodies. CySec regulate the majority of brokers based in Cyprus and Israel. European regulation however, allows providers to serve British clients.

In the UK however, a stronger layer of consumer protection is available if a broker is regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority FCA. Some firms also register with the FCA — but this is not the same as regulation. This is an important distinction. In the US the CFTC have only licensed two brokers to operate there — Nadex and CBOE.

In Australia, ASIC Australian Securities and Investments Commission oversee brokerages. Some firms are also regulated by the Malta Gaming Authority, or the Isle of Man GSC. In Europe, an organisation called ESMA European Securities and Markets Authority also suggest legislation or regulatory guidelines that the majority of domestic regulators adhere to. They recently suggested that binary options should be prohibited to retail investors — though this policy is rather ill-thought out and out dated.

Such changes will punish honest regulated brokers, leaving the dishonest scams to continue operating. Regulated brokers offer greater levels of consumer confidence than unregulated firms. They are obliged to retain trader funds in separate accounts, and not in company accounts. They must provide a dispute process for customers, and treat clients equitably and fairly. In addition, regulated firms can only market in a responsible way, and in regions where trading is permitted.

Responsible brokers welcome regulation as a way to increase levels of consumer trust. Copy trading is a growing sector of investing. It allows users to copy the trades of others. Those copying decide how much to invest, and whether to copy some or all of the trades that a particular trader or tipster opens. The traders being copied also benefit, as the broker will often reward these clients through commission, or increased income revenue and profits based on the trade volume they generate.

When copying however, time and effort spent finding the right traders to follow will pay dividends. Social trading is similar, but is more geared towards social media style info sharing.

They were initially only available to large scale investors — institutions, wealthy individuals and funds. In however, the US Securities and Exchange Commission allowed these fixed return options to be traded over an exchange. This allowed the Chicago Board Options Exchange CBOE and the American Stock Exchange to offer binary trading on certain underlying assets. Initially, the range of assets was limited, as were the choice of options. Nadex also began offering exchange traded options matching buyers and sellers in the US as the market developed.

As popularity and commerce grew however, the traded assets moved beyond Forex and equities and the option types expanded as well. The barriers to entry for potential market makers or brokers are much lower in the binary sector. This, coupled with the boom in internet trading over a similar period, has left regulation lagging behind the industry.

The growth of binaries however, is unlikely to slow. The simplicity, coupled with the clarity of risk, allows almost anyone to take a view on a particular asset but manage their risk much more easily than versus contracts for difference or stocks purchases.

In order to learn binary options, traders have a wealth of learning opportunities and courses. Each trader is different, results will alter from different methods of learning. Some may prefer a pdf file or spreadsheet on the subject, while others will learn most from diving in and getting some hands on experience. Here are a selection on learning methods:. Brokers are keen to give traders the confidence to start trading — and many offer some or all of the above for potential new clients to learn about binary options, generally for free.

Some tools are only made available once a trader has registered — this is purely so the broker has some contact details for things like trading seminars or web based demonstrations. A great way to learn binary options is via an online demonstration or seminar. Some brokers offer weekly seminars, some in a range of languages. Other firms will offer one on one training, but generally require a deposit beforehand.

Some traders benefit from downloading an eBook tutorial, and learning about binary options at their own pace. One note of caution, is that each broker will focus on their own trading platform and quotes for some of the explanations and screen shots.

Brokers want new traders to use their services. The good news is that while the look and feel of some trading platforms will differ, the underlying functions are the same — so the knowledge is transferable easily.

Cotton; L. Vegoda; B. Haberman April Bonica ed. Special-Purpose IP Address Registries. doi : ISSN BCP RFC Best Common Practice. Obsoletes RFC , , and Updated by RFC Rekhter; B. Moskowitz; D. Karrenberg; G. de Groot; E. Lear February Address Allocation for Private Internets. Network Working Group. BCP 5. Obsoletes RFC and Weil; V. Kuarsingh; C. Donley; C. Liljenstolpe; M. Azinger April IANA-Reserved IPv4 Prefix for Shared Address Space. Internet Engineering Task Force.

Updates RFC Cheshire; B. Aboba; E. Guttman May Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses. Proposed Standard. Arkko; M. Vegoda January IPv4 Address Blocks Reserved for Documentation. Troan May Carpenter ed.

Deprecating the Anycast Prefix for 6to4 Relay Routers. Huitema June An Anycast Prefix for 6to4 Relay Routers. Obsoleted by RFC Bradner; J. McQuaid March Benchmarking Methodology for Network Interconnect Devices.

Updated by: RFC and RFC Vegoda; D. Meyer March IANA Guidelines for IPv4 Multicast Address Assignments. Best Common Practice M. Venaas; R. Parekh; G. Van de Velde; T. Chown; M. Eubanks August Multicast Addresses for Documentation. Reynolds, ed. January Assigned Numbers: RFC is Replaced by an On-line Database.

Obsoletes RFC June Retrieved 15 November Special Addresses: In certain contexts, it is useful to have fixed addresses with functional significance rather than as identifiers of specific hosts. When such usage is called for, the address zero is to be interpreted as meaning "this", as in "this network". Archived from the original on Number Resource Organization. Retrieved 3 February Archived from the original on 7 August Retrieved 15 April December March Piscataway, NJ: University of Technology, Mauritius, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

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Options trading may seem overwhelming at first, but it's easy to understand if you know a few key points. Investor portfolios are usually constructed with several asset classes. These may be stocks, bonds, ETFs, and even mutual funds.

Options are another asset class, and when used correctly, they offer many advantages that trading stocks and ETFs alone cannot. Options are contracts that give the bearer the right—but not the obligation—to either buy or sell an amount of some underlying asset at a predetermined price at or before the contract expires. Like most other asset classes, options can be purchased with brokerage investment accounts.

They do this through added income, protection, and even leverage. A popular example would be using options as an effective hedge against a declining stock market to limit downside losses.

In fact, options were really invented for hedging purposes. Hedging with options is meant to reduce risk at a reasonable cost. Here, we can think of using options like an insurance policy. Just as you insure your house or car, options can be used to insure your investments against a downturn. Imagine that you want to buy technology stocks, but you also want to limit losses. By using put options, you could limit your downside risk and enjoy all the upside in a cost-effective way.

For short sellers , call options can be used to limit losses if the underlying price moves against their trade—especially during a short squeeze. Options can also be used for speculation. Speculation is a wager on future price direction. A speculator might think the price of a stock will go up, perhaps based on fundamental analysis or technical analysis.

A speculator might buy the stock or buy a call option on the stock. Speculating with a call option—instead of buying the stock outright—is attractive to some traders because options provide leverage.

Options belong to the larger group of securities known as derivatives. A derivative's price is dependent on or derived from the price of something else. Options are derivatives of financial securities—their value depends on the price of some other asset. Examples of derivatives include calls, puts, futures, forwards , swaps , and mortgage-backed securities, among others. In terms of valuing option contracts, it is essentially all about determining the probabilities of future price events.

The more likely something is to occur, the more expensive an option that profits from that event would be. For instance, a call value goes up as the stock underlying goes up. This is the key to understanding the relative value of options. The less time there is until expiry, the less value an option will have. This is because the chances of a price move in the underlying stock diminish as we draw closer to expiry.

This is why an option is a wasting asset. Because time is a component of the price of an option, a one-month option is going to be less valuable than a three-month option. This is because with more time available, the probability of a price move in your favor increases, and vice versa. Accordingly, the same option strike that expires in a year will cost more than the same strike for one month. This wasting feature of options is a result of time decay.

Volatility also increases the price of an option. This is because uncertainty pushes the odds of an outcome higher. If the volatility of the underlying asset increases, larger price swings increase the possibilities of substantial moves both up and down. Greater price swings will increase the chances of an event occurring. Therefore, the greater the volatility, the greater the price of the option.

Options trading and volatility are intrinsically linked to each other in this way. On most U. The majority of the time, holders choose to take their profits by trading out closing out their position. This means that option holders sell their options in the market, and writers buy their positions back to close. Fluctuations in option prices can be explained by intrinsic value and extrinsic value , which is also known as time value. An option's premium is the combination of its intrinsic value and time value.

Intrinsic value is the in-the-money amount of an options contract, which, for a call option, is the amount above the strike price that the stock is trading. Time value represents the added value an investor has to pay for an option above the intrinsic value. This is the extrinsic value or time value. So the price of the option in our example can be thought of as the following:.

In real life, options almost always trade at some level above their intrinsic value, because the probability of an event occurring is never absolutely zero, even if it is highly unlikely. Options are a type of derivative security. An option is a derivative because its price is intrinsically linked to the price of something else.

If you buy an options contract , it grants you the right but not the obligation to buy or sell an underlying asset at a set price on or before a certain date. A call option gives the holder the right to buy a stock and a put option gives the holder the right to sell a stock. Think of a call option as a down payment on a future purchase. Options involve risks and are not suitable for everyone. Options trading can be speculative in nature and carry a substantial risk of loss.

A call option gives the holder the right, but not the obligation, to buy the underlying security at the strike price on or before expiration. A call option will therefore become more valuable as the underlying security rises in price calls have a positive delta. A long call can be used to speculate on the price of the underlying rising, since it has unlimited upside potential but the maximum loss is the premium price paid for the option. A potential homeowner sees a new development going up.

That person may want the right to purchase a home in the future but will only want to exercise that right after certain developments around the area are built. The potential homebuyer would benefit from the option of buying or not. Well, they can—you know it as a non-refundable deposit. The potential homebuyer needs to contribute a down payment to lock in that right.

With respect to an option, this cost is known as the premium. It is the price of the option contract. This is one year past the expiration of this option. Now the homebuyer must pay the market price because the contract has expired.

Opposite to call options, a put gives the holder the right, but not the obligation, to instead sell the underlying stock at the strike price on or before expiration. A long put, therefore, is a short position in the underlying security, since the put gains value as the underlying's price falls they have a negative delta. Protective puts can be purchased as a sort of insurance, providing a price floor for investors to hedge their positions. Now, think of a put option as an insurance policy. The policy has a face value and gives the insurance holder protection in the event the home is damaged.

What if, instead of a home, your asset was a stock or index investment? Call options and put options are used in a variety of situations. The table below outlines some use cases for call and put options. Many brokers today allow access to options trading for qualified customers. If you want access to options trading you will have to be approved for both margin and options with your broker. Once approved, there are four basic things you can do with options:. Buying stock gives you a long position.

Buying a call option gives you a potential long position in the underlying stock. Short-selling a stock gives you a short position. Selling a naked or uncovered call gives you a potential short position in the underlying stock.

Buying a put option gives you a potential short position in the underlying stock. Selling a naked or unmarried put gives you a potential long position in the underlying stock. Keeping these four scenarios straight is crucial. People who buy options are called holders and those who sell options are called writers of options. Here is the important distinction between holders and writers:.

Options can also generate recurring income. Additionally, they are often used for speculative purposes, such as wagering on the direction of a stock. Note that options trading usually comes with trading commissions: often a flat per-trade fee plus a smaller amount per contract. Call options and put options can only function as effective hedges when they limit losses and maximize gains. In such a scenario, your put options expire worthless. If the price declines as you bet it would in your put options , then your maximum gains are also capped.

Therefore, your gains are not capped and are unlimited. The table below summarizes gains and losses for options buyers. As the name indicates, going long on a call involves buying call options, betting that the price of the underlying asset will increase with time.

Some brokers offer weekly seminars, some in a range of languages. The Brit Method is one high profile example — swerve it. He holds a PhD and MA in political science from the University of New Orleans. The survey sample was closely comparable to the ACS figures. writeDoubleBE value[, offset] buf.

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